Introduction
While the Western world was largely controlled by the Romans during the New Testament era, it was Greek culture and religion that had the greatest influence on the people in that part of the world. That influence extended beyond Greece to Asia Minor, Italy, and throughout the Western Mediterranean. Even the Roman conception of gods was borrowed from the Greeks. Thus, as we read the New Testament, the Greek influence is pronounced.
Ancient Greek religious practice dominated all areas of life in a very personal way. Most people these days are aware of the Greek civic religion because of having studied it in school. This was the religion that was centered around the Olympian gods described in the Greek myths that were written down and passed to succeeding generations. However, there was also a popular religion that was an extension of the civic religion, and which was practiced even more widely.
The civic religion was practiced using various formal rituals, animal sacrifices, worship at great temples, city festivals, and national sporting and artistic competitions. Underlying the religious practice were numerous myths that helped to explain mankind’s origins, the nature of the gods, and the nature of the interaction between the gods and mankind. While there was some variety in beliefs and practice throughout the regions where this religion was dominant, the common denominator was belief in the existence of gods that were able to influence human affairs, and that favorably responded to acts of piety and worship.
While the civic religion was prominent in those days, we need to recognize that there was much more to the religion than that. If we wish to understand many of the things the New Testament writers were dealing with as they wrote to the churches in that day, we need to dig down and get a little more specific.
Of course, we do see references to the civic religion in various New Testament writings. But we also see many references to paganism and pagan practices that caused problems for the new churches that were spreading throughout the empire. It was these pagan beliefs that represented the more prominent religious practices of the common people. It is helpful to understand these various beliefs and practices if we want to more fully grasp the teachings of the New Testament.
History
Mainstream Greek religion appears to have developed out of the animistic beliefs of the people who lived in Eurasia during prehistoric times. This broadly included a people group referred to as Proto-Indo-European. These were the people who lived throughout northern India, the Middle East, Northern Europe, and Southern Siberia. It even included the Hittites, who ultimately settled in Israel, as well as the ancestors of the Greeks. Not much detail is known about the these Greek ancestors, but evidence suggests that this people group reached even further back than the Bronze Age to the farmers who settled in Neolithic Greece. It even appears that some of the Greek myths may have had their origin in these early times, as the literary settings of certain myths relate to locations that were important in those early times, but had become unimportant by the Greek period. In fact, as many as half of the Greek pantheon seem to trace back that far.
The ancient Greek religion was probably the result of the hybridization of religious beliefs of the indigenous Mycenaeans and the Greek-speaking peoples who migrated from the north during the 2nd millennium B.C. The chief god of the Greek speaking people was the Indo-European sky god known as Zeus. The indigenous group also had their own sky god, along with its own set of rituals and myths. The intertwining of the religions became more complex as the various gods of the two groups were merged, and the myths began to develop (which also accounts for the numerous variations of the Greek myths). These separate beliefs became intertwined, with the migrants applying the name of Zeus to the already established sky god in the locations where they settled.
The Mycenaean Period (Pre-Greek)
The Mycenaean Period was the last phase of the Bronze Age in Ancient Greece, and lasted from about 1600-1100 B.C. This was before the Greek culture emerged. In fact, the Mycenaean religion is considered to be the mother of the Greek religion, and many of the gods from that period became prominent in the Greek pantheon. This was the period when the first advanced civilization appeared in mainland Greece that featured well organized states, urban organization, classical artwork, and a writing system.
Some of the gods that were part of the Mycenaean religion that later became part of the Greek pantheon include: Poseidon, Demeter and her daughter Persephone, Artemis, Athena, Dionysus, Zeus, Hera, Hephaestus, Ares, and Hermes.
The Archaic Period
The Archaic Period in Greece extended from the 900s B.C. to 480 B.C. During that period, Dionysus became prominent in the Greek pantheon. His devotees were quite heathen and were reputed to wander around in reveling bands on mountain slopes. They were known to have such practices as tearing living victims to pieces and feasting on their raw flesh. While this kind of behavior continued for a time out in the countryside, the cult became more “civilized” in the cities sometime before 500 B.C.
In the 7th and 6th centuries B.C., “tyrants” seized power in many of the Greek cities. Some of these were actually nobles who rose to power by offering to defend the poor against rival nobles who were attacking them. Once these tyrants established themselves, many built temples to the various gods and founded, or revived, festivals.
The Classical Period
The Classical period in Greek history extends from around 510 B.C. to the death of Alexander the Great in 323 B.C. During this period, traditional Greek religion was challenged by such rationalist thinkers as Heracleitus of Ephesus and Xenophanes of Colophon. These philosophers offered a serious challenge to belief in the Greek, and the associated animistic beliefs of that day. These intellectual challenges to the widely accepted Greek religious beliefs, however, do not appear to have greatly swayed society as a whole, as the worship of the gods at the various temples, and the practices of popular religion in society, continued unabated.
Festivals in the name of the gods were very prominent during this period. These became a part of the Greek identity and played an important social role among the people. The festivals were very large gatherings that were held to encourage the gods to take care of the land. Greece was, at that time, mostly agrarian, and the festivals were held seasonally to encourage the gods to provide good crops. Sporting and other cultural events were also associated with these festivals. They were generally held at times and places that commemorated the various gods and were a means of pleasing them.
Ancient Greek religious practice did not have a priestly class. There were priests associated with various temples and other worship places, but individuals became priests by their own decision, not by being part of a priestly class. Often various high ranking nobles or city officials would provide the priests for these worship places. While the priests would perform sacrifices and other religious practices, their primary role was to maintain and keep clean the temple.
During this period, popular religion thrived alongside the civic cults. While the general population acknowledged and worshiped the Olympian pantheon, scores of other deities were also worshiped. These other deities were associated with caring for farmer’s flocks and crops, aiding women in childbirth, and other everyday aspects of the average person’s life. They were also seen to inhabit caves, springs, trees, and the sea. This popular religion also included the widespread practice of magic.
The Hellenistic Period
The Hellenistic period in ancient Greece extended from the death of Alexander the Great in 323 B.C. to the emergence of the Roman Empire around 31 B.C. As the Greek religion had no creed and did not overtly seek to convert people to the faith, it was not spread by proselytization, but by believers who moved to new places. This often happened as new cities were founded and people moved to new locations. When individuals moved, they took their religious beliefs with them, but would also accept into their own pantheon the gods of the places where they moved. This is quite a common process in animistic religions, as the gods are typically understood to be associated with the land.
As Alexander the Great had created an empire where a central government was primary, the various gods that were more widely worshiped became prominent across the empire. The local deities that existed throughout the land flourished among the common people alongside the civic religion.
Authority
The ancient Greek religion did not have a written creed or any authoritative dogma, and there were no religious texts that were considered to be revealed scriptures of sacred origin. The underlying beliefs of this religion were based on the same type of animistic traditions that the religion itself emerged from.
That said, certain sacred writings did emerge that consisted of hymns, oracles, inscriptions, and instructions to the dead. The most prominent of these included Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey, the Homeric hymns, Hesiod’s Theogony, along with his Works and Days, and Pindar’s Odes. While some of these works may have been written for religious festivals, their subject matter is almost entirely mythological. These were believed to have a certain kind of authority, but were usually considered something less than inspired.
It seems that some of the mystery cults did have their own authoritative texts that guided their own worship, but these were not considered authoritative by the general public.
Evidence for the Authority
Generally speaking, animistic belief systems do not have an accepted authority source for the practice of their religious beliefs. The religion is based on a tradition that is passed down from the ancestors. The Greek religion is no exception. There is no text that is considered authoritative, and there is no evidence that the animistic tradition that it is built upon actually represents the truth about reality.
Worldview Beliefs
God
When people think of the ancient Greek religious system, for most it brings to mind the mythological gods of Mt. Olympus. However, it really consisted of a two tiered system. The Olympan cult was primarily the civic religion, but there was also a “popular religion” that was practiced by the common people in everyday life.
The early Greeks personalized every aspect of the world order – both natural and cultural. In its essence, ancient Greek theology was an animistic religious system that personified many of the various spirits into identifiable gods and goddesses, as well as a range of lesser supernatural beings of various types. The foundational belief was that these gods, goddesses, and other supernatural beings controlled what went on in the world and in people’s daily lives. The Olympian cult consisted of a hierarchy of deities, with Zeus identified as the king of the gods. Although he was not seen to be almighty, as king he did have a certain level of control over the other gods.
The Greek gods were believed to hold sway over various elements of nature. Some also ruled over more abstract concepts such as love. Most of the gods were pictured as having a human form, though some of them were believed to be able to transform themselves into animals or natural phenomena. It was also believed that fate was able to override their divine powers and their wills.
The Greek gods were understood to be part of a large, multi-generational family – the earliest members of which created the world as we know it. They were typically described as having a human form, but with superhuman characteristics. While they were considered to be immortal, they were also seen to have flawed characters. In fact, they generally acted like extra powerful human beings with various human vices. They would sometimes also interact with humans, even having children with them. Additionally, they would sometimes fight amongst themselves, and even involved human beings in some of their wars. These gods were understood to not age, were pretty much immune to all sicknesses and other things that might debilitate humans, were able to become invisible, were not omnipresent (though they were able to travel vast distances almost instantly), and were able to speak through human beings (with or without their knowledge).
In the civic religion, it was not unusual for particular gods to be associated with certain cities. For instance, Athena was associated with Athens, Apollo with Delphi and Delos, Zeus with Olympia, and Aphrodite with Corinth. There was generally a temple in these cities where the patron god was worshiped. As this religion spread beyond Greece, some of the gods became associated with cities outside of the country, as well; for instance Poseidon became connected with Ethiopia and Troy, while Ares became the patron god of Thrace. This did not, of course, preclude other gods from also being worshiped in those cities, particularly as it related to the popular religion.
Another interesting thing about the religion was that just because a particular god was worshiped in one place, it did not necessarily follow that a god with the same name in another place was actually connected with the same cult; for instance, the Artemis worshipped at Sparta, the virgin huntress, was a very different deity from the Artemis who was a many-breasted fertility goddess at Ephesus. Though the worship of the major deities spread from one local to another, and though most larger cities boasted temples to several major gods, the identification of particular gods with specific places remained strong to the end.
In the popular religion of the everyday person, there was a god for every aspect of their lives. As far as the practice of worship, it was considered to be important to please the gods. When they were pleased they would help people, but when displeased, they would punish them. It was quite common for people to have altars within their homes where they could pray to the gods and give offerings. There were also local shrines throughout the cities and in the countryside for gods associated with particular places.
Man
There have been various stories from historical Greek writings that described the origin of man. Seemingly, the first of these shared the belief that man had sprung from the earth in the same way plants and flowers emerged through the ground. The story continues that the gods and heroes tamed and civilized these early human beings. But over time the humans became morally corrupt, which caused the gods to decide to destroy them by means of a flood. However, two humans, Deucalion and Pyrrha, built a boat and survived. At that point, the gods decided to start over with man, instructed the two survivors to cover their heads and throw stones over their shoulders. From the stones thrown by Deucalion, men sprang up, and those Pyrrha threw became women. Over the years, other mythological stories also emerged where the gods would become mad at humanity and alter their existence by various means.
All of the stories, however have a common animistic theme. Humanity is understood to be the physical expression of an eternal spiritual life force that is controlled or influenced by the gods.
Salvation
In the ancient Greek religion, the spirits of the dead went to the underworld after death. The most common belief was that there were three parts of the underworld.
The largest area was called Hades, and was ruled over by Hades, a brother of Zeus. This place was the anticipated destination for most people at the moment of death. The expectation for people who went to Hades was to continue to live, but as a disembodied soul. For the Greeks, life in Hades was considered a lesser existence than life on earth, though there was not generally a great fear of the afterlife. They thought of existence there in terms of helpless souls deprived of their wits, flitting purposelessly about in drafty, echoing halls.
The second part of the underworld was Tartarus. This was the Greek version of Hell and was considered a place of torment for the damned. Tartarus was understood to be lower than Hades in the deepest region of the underworld. In actuality, not a great number of people ended up in Tartarus – only the particularly evil such as thieves and murderers. It was also believed to be a place where monsters and various enemies that were defeated by the gods had been cast.
The third place in the underworld was Elysium. Elysium was the Greek version of heaven, and was thought of as a place of pleasure for those who were particularly virtuous. This place was also referred to as Elysian Fields or the Elysian Plain. It was a paradisaical place located at the western ends of the earth. It was envisioned as a place of gentle breezes and an easy life similar to that experienced by the gods.
There were some Greek philosophers during this ancient era such as Pythagoras, Plato, Epicurus, and a few others who came up with other belief systems that viewed the afterlife quite differently. Some of these believed in reincarnation, while others believed that there was no afterlife at all. While these other beliefs have become widely known because surviving records of various philosophers have been passed down through the ages, the truth is, they were not widely believed among the population at large.
As the core foundation of the Greek religion was animistic, the most prominent belief about salvation was that people must believe in the gods and perform sacrifices and rituals that would please them. By doing this, they would avoid offending the gods. This had the dual benefit of avoiding their wrath, and receiving the blessings of their approval.
The concept of fate also had a strong influence in the ancient Greek religion. In particular, it was believed that the Olympic gods, as well as the many local gods, directed the fate of human beings. It was for this reason that people would pray and offer sacrifices to the gods. However, the concept of fate had a much broader application, as well, as they believed that even the gods were subject to the forces of Fate.
Other Beliefs and Practices
Greek Gods
The civic religion of ancient Greece was based on a belief in the gods of Greek mythology. Most Greeks in that era believed in the Olympian gods and goddesses that are mentioned in the myths: Zeus, Hera, Poseidon, Demeter, Athena, Ares, Aphrodite, Apollo, Artemis, Hephaestus, Hermes, Hades, and either Hestia or Dionysus.
The gods who lived on the top of Mount Olympus were the primary gods of the Greek pantheon. In actuality, there were different gods that, at various times, were recognized to be Olympians, and the variation was caused by different issues. Among those reasons, Hestia gave up her position to Dionysus so that she could live among the humans, Demeter was allowed to leave Olympus six months of the year to spend time with her daughter Persephone, and Hades, of course, had his home in the underworld.
While these gods were worshiped throughout the Greek world, it should be noted that in different periods and in different places, some of them were worshiped under different names. As the religion evolved, various local deities were absorbed into the pantheon as different locales were conquered in war, or as Greek natives migrated to new places and incorporated the gods of their new homes into their own belief system. That said, over time, certain gods did emerge more prominently throughout the Greek speaking world. The most prominent Greek gods included:
Aphrodite
Aphrodite was the goddess of love, sexuality, procreation, desire and beauty, and was the wife of Hephaestus – the lame god of fire and crafts. There is some confusion as to her origin. Hesiod wrote that she was born from the severed genitals of Uranus, while Homer said she was the daughter of Zeus and Dione.
Her connection with fertility was not only associated with humanity. She was also responsible for the fertility of the land. This dual responsibility was seen to be connected, and worship in her temples in Athens and Corinth involved sexual relations temple prostitutes, in recognition of her role in fertility. Girls who were about to be married would also offer sacrifices to Aphrodite so that their first sexual experience would be fruitful.
Aphrodite was also known to rise from the waves of the sea and enrapture everyone who saw her. With this, she also had a role in protecting seafarers. Her main symbol was her girdle that had magical powers to compel love.
Apollo
Apollo was a son of Zeus, and his mother was Leto. When Zeus’s wife Hera found out about his unfaithfulness and the pregnancy, she was very angry and convinced the earth to not allow Leto to give birth anywhere on its surface. However, the island of Delos allowed Leto to take refuge and she give birth to Apollo there, along with his twin sister, Artemis.
Apollo had numerous roles as a god. He was the god of music and poetry, and was known for playing a golden lyre. He was also considered the god of prophesy and truth, and could not speak a lie. This last trait made him one that humans looked to for prophecies and oracles, particularly at his shrine at Delphi. He was also known as the god of light, as well as the god of healing (and is credited with being the one who taught medicine to human beings). His tree was the laurel. He was also an Archer, and was known to be able to shoot far with a silver bow.
Apollo’s symbol was the Sun itself, the lyre, the bow, and the chariot he drove across the sky each day. He was also known to have the crow as his bird, and the dolphin as his animal.
Ares
Ares was a son of Zeus and Hera and was the god of war. The Greek myths paint him in a somewhat negative light. In the Iliad he is said to be hated by Zeus, and he had two sons by Aphrodite named Fear and Panic. He was seen to be partial to the Trojans and fought on their side in war.
Appropriately, his symbol was a spear. He was also associated with the vulture as his bird and the dog as his animal. Early on, he was represented in art as a bearded warrior. Later images portrayed him as naked and young. There were temples to Ares in Crete and the Peloponnese, but it seems that cults and rituals associated him were rare.
Artemis
Artemis was a daughter of Zeus and Leto, and the elder twin sister of Apollo. She was a virgin, and the goddess of the hunt, wild animals, the wilderness, childbirth, and virginity. As the goddess of childbirth, she was looked to as the protector of the young. She was tasked with watching over young girls’ transition into womanhood, and over childbirth and child rearing.
As the goddess of the hunt, she was often portrayed with animals, and with her bow and arrow. In fact, like her brother Apollo, she would hunt with silver arrows. She was also portrayed with her hounds, and was known to wear the lunar crescent on her brow. This imagery also caused her to be associated with male rites of passage, with hunting, and even with some aspects of war.
Athena
Athena was a daughter of Zeus, but she had no mother. The story is that she sprang full grown in armor out of Zeus’ forehead. She was the virgin goddess of wisdom, strategy, and war. Athena was seen as an armed warrior goddess who carried a goatskin shield that was given to her by her father. She was attended by Nike, the goddess of victory.
Athena was also associated with the city, handicrafts, and agriculture. She is credited with inventing the bridle, which allowed humans to tame horses, the trumpet, the flute, the pot, the rake, the plow, the yoke, the ship, and the chariot. Her symbol was the owl that signified her wisdom and vigilance. She was also associated with the olive tree. Her most famous temple was the Parthenon in Athens.
Demeter
Demeter was the daughter of Cronus and Rhea, making her a sister of Zeus. It is said that she was born on the earth, though there is no known exact location. She was put on the earth to help farmers plant their crops and produce a good yield. She was specifically known as the goddess of corn, grain, harvest, and of fertility in general. It was believed that she made the crops grow each year; thus the first loaf of bread made from the annual harvest was offered to her. Though Demeter is generally associated with harvest, she also presided over the sacred law, and the cycle of life and death.
Dionysus
Dionysus was the son of Zeus and Semele (or in other stories, of Zeus and Persephone). He was the god of wine and symbolized both wine’s intoxicating power and its beneficial social influences.
Beyond that, Dionysus was understood to be the god who promoted human civilization and peace, and was a lawgiver. He is the patron god of agriculture and the theater.
Hades
Hades was a brother of Zeus, and was the god of the underworld and ruler over the dead. He was also recognized as the god of wealth because the precious metals in the earth were considered a part of his domain.
Hades was believed to have a helmet that made him invisible. One myth regarding how he claimed his mate was that using his helmet, he sprang out of the earth and captured Persephone, a daughter of Zeus and Demeter. When he captured her, he drug her off to be his wife and queen of the underworld. This greatly distressed her mother who pulled out all the stops to search for her – even to the point of stopping all foods from growing in the earth. With this pressure, Hades finally agreed to return Persephone under certain conditions; she was to stay one-third of the year with Hades, one-third of the year serving as a servant to Zeus on Mount Olympus, and she was able to stay the other third with her mother. The special symbol of Hades was the scepter or the horn of plenty.
Hephaestus
Hephaestus was a son of Zeus and Hera, and his wife was Aphrodite. He was the god of fire and the forge, which were also his symbols. His own forge was a volcano. He is the only god to be known as physically ugly and lame.
There are a couple of different accounts as to how he became lame. One story was that Hera was upset by having an ugly child, so she threw him off of Mount Olympus into the sea, which broke his legs. Another myth says that he took Hera’s side in an argument against Zeus, and in his anger Zeus threw him off Mount Olympus.
Hephaestus is the patron god of blacksmiths, weavers, artisans, sculptors, metals, and metallurgy. Because of this, he was particularly worshiped in the manufacturing and industrial centers of Greece, especially Athens.
Hera
Hera was the goddess of marriage and childbirth. She was Zeus’ sister, but was also married to him. It appears that the tradition of Hera existed well before the era of the Greek gods, but was later incorporated into the Olympian pantheon. As Zeus was rather unfaithful to her by having children with other goddesses, it seems she spent a certain amount of time and effort plotting revenge against Zeus’ consorts. In spite of that, she was always faithful to him, and was seen as a majestic and solemn woman. Her symbol was the peacock, and her sacred animals were the cow and the peacock.
Hermes
Hermes was the son of Zeus and a primordial nymph named Maia. He was born in a cave on Mt. Cyllene in Peloponnesus between Achaia and Arcadia. Hermes was considered the fastest of all the gods, and was the god of boundaries and of the travelers who cross them. He was known for wearing winged sandals, a winged hat, and for carrying a magic wand. Because of his great speed, he served as the messenger of the gods.
Those who looked to him as their patron god included shepherds and cowherds, orators, writers, and athletes. He was also responsible over weights and measures, inventions, and commerce in general. His role among the gods was to serve as the guide to lead the dead to the underworld. His symbol was his staff.
Hestia
Hestia was a sister of Zeus. She was a virgin, and was known as the goddess of family and home. While she had no public cult, she did receive the first offering at every household sacrifice. Her symbol was a hearth, and every city had a public sacred hearth dedicated to her where the fire was never allowed to go out.
Poseidon
Poseidon was the god of the sea and a brother of Zeus. He was also the god of earthquakes and horses. His weapon/symbol was a trident. He was considered the second most powerful god, and using his weapon he was able to shake the earth and shatter any object. He was married to Amphitrite, the goddess of the sea. Poseidon was particularly worshiped by seamen who would often drown horses as sacrifices to him.
Zeus
Zeus was the leader of the gods, and was recognized as the lord of the sky, rain, and thunder. He was married to Hera, but was well known for his marital unfaithfulness. His children by Hera included Hephaistos, Eileithyia, Hebe, and Ares. Children by other goddesses, mortal women, and nymphs included Demeter, Latona, Dione, Maia, Semele, Io, Europa, and Leda, as well as many nymphs. The weapon/symbol he was known for was the thunderbolt, which he would hurl at those who displeased him.
Mythology
Ancient Greek civic religion had a fairly large mythology. This mythology was mostly comprised of stories about the gods and how they interacted with human beings. While gods and humans were the most prominent characters in Greek mythology, they were not the only ones. There also existed various other species of beings such as Titans (who existed before the Olympian gods), half-man-half-horse centaurs, nymphs who lived out in nature (prominently in trees and in the sea), the half man, half goat creatures called satyrs, Hecatonchires (three giants of incredible strength and fierceness who were called the Hundred-Handed Ones), and Gorgons (three sisters who had hair made of living, venomous snakes). There were also other one-off creatures such as the one-eyed Cyclopes, the sea beast Scylla, whirlpool Charybdis, and Minotaur (a half-man, half-bull creature).
There was not just a single Greek creation myth, as different religious groupings had their own versions. Probably the most prominent one come from Hesiod’s Theogony. In this story, there was a primeval god called Chaos – a gaping nothingness. From this void, Gaia (the Earth) emerged, along with Eros (Love), Tartarus (the Underworld ), Erebus (deep darkness and shadows), and Nyx (night). Without the involvement of a male, Gaia gave birth to Uranus (the Sky) who then impregnated her. Their relationship produced the Titans – six male and six female giants. They then decreed that no more Titans were to be born. Following that they produced the one-eyed Cyclopes and the Hecatonchires.
In an act that made Gaia angry, Uranus threw the Hecatonchires into Tartarus. With that, Gaia convinced one of the Titans, Cronus, to castrate his father. In doing this, he stepped up as the ruler of the Titans and made Rhea, his Titan sister, his wife.
As Cronus had betrayed his father, he became afraid that his children would do the same to him. Thus, whenever Rhea gave birth, he would take the child and eat it. This, in turn, made Rhea angry, and when their child Zeus was born, she hid him by tricking Cronos. When Zeus was full grown, he drugged Cronus, which caused him to vomit up Rhea’s other children. Zeus then challenged Cronus to war and, with the help of his siblings and the Cyclopes, he won and took over as king of the gods. With that, he threw Cronus and the other Titans into Tartarus and took over Olympus. He, along with his siblings, then became the chief gods.
There was another creation myth that also became somewhat prominent based on the writings of Homer. In this one, the Earth was seen to be a flat disk that floated on the river of Oceanus. Above was the sky with the sun, moon, and stars. The Sun (Helios) was believed to travel through the heavens during the day as a charioteer, and at night sailed around the Earth in a golden bowl. The sun, earth, heaven, rivers, and winds were all considered to be gods. People would pray to them and call on them to witness oaths. Hades was understood to be the home of the dead, and natural openings in the earth were believed to be entrances to the home of Hades.
Other, less prominent, mythological themes also emerged in different locations. These were the result of interactions with other cultures, as migrating Greeks settled among other groups.
Morality
One of the most important values for the ancient Greeks was moderation. They believed that proper expressions of moderation should be demonstrated in every part of life. This was especially applicable in athletics and intellectual pursuits. This emphasis on moderation also included things like eating and drinking, expressions of hatred toward others, and the way gifted intellectuals and athletes should carry themselves. With that as a starting point, probably the greatest sins among the Greeks were expressions of excessive pride and arrogance. While properly moderated pride was not looked on as a sin, it became so when carried to an extreme.
Shrines and Temples
In common with most other animistic religions, the earliest expressions of Greek religion were practiced in natural places such as groves, caves, and mountaintops. These worship places often contained an altar, some kind of temple structure, and, depending on the particular deity being worshiped, various sacred instruments. Early temples were usually made of wood and would house the image of the god. These smaller, local shrines remained a common sight throughout the time the Greek religion continued to exist.
In later times, when the civil religion of the Olympians became prominent, the people began building very large marble temples surrounded by rows of columns. The image of the god of a given temple would be found in a central chamber that was open at the eastern end.
Sacrifice
Large scale worship in the Greek temples was usually associated with special festivals and events, though individuals were also permitted to bring personal sacrifices. These sacrifices involved the ritual killing of animals at the altar, along with a hymn and a prayer.
Typically, the altar was located outside of the temple building itself. Interestingly, as was the case with Israel’s Old Testament sacrifices, the sacrificial animal was supposed to be one that was without blemish so as to not offend the god. In the sacrificial ceremony, worshipers would decorate an animal with garlands, then a girl with a basket on her head containing a knife would lead it in procession to the altar. Following a special ritual, the animal would be slaughtered over the altar. It was expected that the women who were present would wail at the animal’s death. Its blood would then be collected and poured over the altar.
Following the sacrifice, the animal would be butchered. Its internal organs and bones were placed on the altar and burned as a sacrifice to the temple’s god, and the meat would be served to the participants. The animal’s skin was usually kept by the temple and sold to tanners.
It appears that different gods preferred different animals, so the particular creatures brought to the various temples were often based on that preference. For instance:
Athena – heifers
Hera – cows
Demeter – pigs
Zeus and Dionysus – bulls
Hecate – dogs
Artemis – wild game and heifers
Poseidon – horses
Priapus – donkeys
While these preferences existed, it appears that this was not a concrete rule, and people could bring various animals to any of the temples. The most common sacrifices were bulls or oxen, cows, sheep, goats, pigs, and poultry.
Sacrifices were also observed outside of the large temples in smaller local worship places. In fact, these were probably more common than the civic sacrifices, as they were more associated with the everyday life of the common people. Farmers, in particular, would make “first fruits” sacrifices at harvest time. Drink offerings (libations) were also commonly observed along with a prayer whenever people would drink wine.
Priesthood
While there was no priestly class in the ancient Greek religion, there were priests who presided at the various temples. There was also no set way that priests were selected. At some temples they were connected to a particular family. In other cases they were selected by city officials – which created a lot of interaction between the religious and secular spheres. In cases where the official priests were not completely competent in their position, there was usually some kind of professional assistance available to help with the sacrifices.
Oracles & Divination
One prominent element of the ancient Greek religion involved oracles; fortune tellers. These were people who were recognized to have some kind of special connection to the gods. They would receive messages from the gods to give individuals, or to city-states, as a means of providing guidance for the future. Many of the shrines connected to the oracles had a subterranean chamber where the oracle would consult the gods. Other forms of divination were also widely practiced including the interpretation of dreams, reading the configuration of birds in flight or the shape of smoke from an altar, or even discerning the layout of the intestines of sacrificial animals.
Festivals & Games
The ancient Greeks were very diligent in holding festivals and games as a part of their religious practice. These typically involved various kinds of competitions and other events; particularly athletics, music, and theater. Most of these events were held in cities where important temples existed. The festivals and accompanying competitions were all done to honor the gods, and were attended by visitors and participants from all over Greece. Typically, warfare was prohibited during the time of the festivals, and those traveling to a festival were guaranteed safe passage.
Some of the larger festivals were not held every year. For instance, the great festival of Zeus, which was associated with the ancient Olympic Games, was held every fourth summer.
Popular Religion
Because of the record we have of the Greek myths and various written accounts of the activities that went on in the temples in ancient times, most people are familiar with the ancient Greek civic religion. However, there was also a popular religion that was probably even more prevalent during that time. The majority of ancient Greeks were Animists, and the underlying foundation of all of their religious practice was based on animistic beliefs – both their beliefs about the Olympian gods and the various spirits that they acknowledged in nature.
Thus, the Greek religion was practiced not only at the great temples, it was practiced virtually everywhere. In addition to temple worship, there were thousands of small shrines dedicated to various gods and spirits throughout the land, including in private homes. People would pray and offer incense and offerings of flowers and food to the spirits of these various shrines.
People would also look for signs from the gods in nature. They noted such things as how the birds would fly in the sky, the formation of the clouds, and many other things that they interpreted as either good or bad omens.
© 2018 Freddy Davis