Introduction
In Acts 17, we read the story of the apostle Paul going to Athens, Greece and interacting with people from many different religious backgrounds. One of those was a group of Epicureans. Epicureanism was a belief system founded by a Greek philosopher named Epicurus. While this religion was not huge in the ancient Greek world, it was large enough to have its own school that taught the Epicurean philosophy over a period of several hundred years. In order for Paul to effectively interact with these Epicureans, he had to know something about their religion in order to explain to them how what they believed was not the truth. Without that as a starting point, he would not have been able to share the gospel in a way that they would be able to understand.
Epicurus followed a belief called atomic materialism. This was the belief that nature consists of two fundamental principles: atom and void. Atoms were believed to be small indivisible particles that are too small for human senses to detect. It was believed that there were an infinite number of these eternal particles and that they had different shapes. These atoms were believed to float in a vacuum that was called the “void.” Atomists believed that all matter (including souls, gods, and thoughts) were comprised of atoms, and that the various things that exist in reality are determined by the type of atom that make them up.
This kind of materialistic philosophy produced a belief system that denied the existence of a supernatural reality. As with all forms of naturalistic philosophy, Epicureanism asserted that the highest good was the pleasure people could get in this life. His version about how one could attain that kind of pleasure consisted of living modestly, gaining knowledge of how the world works, and limiting one’s desires. He believed that following these principles would help people attain a state of tranquility, freedom from fear, and the absence of bodily pain.
For Epicurus, the means for achieving pleasure in life was to promote moderation in all things. For example, one should not eat too richly as it could lead to later dissatisfaction. By the same token, overindulging in sex could lead to dissatisfaction with one’s sexual partner. By maintaining moderation in all things, Epicurus believed people could keep from disturbing their peace of mind. This promotion of moderation also caused Epicureans to shun politics, as political discourse promoted frustration.
Often, Epicureanism is associated with hedonism. While technically that is an accurate characterization, the hedonism it promotes is very different from what is commonly considered. It asserts that pleasure is life’s highest goal, but it defines pleasure as the absence of pain and fear, not simply the attempt to gain personal delights. Rather than debauchery, Epicureanism promotes a simple life.
History
Epicureanism is a system of philosophy based upon the teachings of the ancient Greek philosopher Epicurus (341-270 B.C.). Epicurus himself was born into the family of a school teacher on the island of Samos on February 4, 341 B.C. It was during the period of his childhood that Alexander the Great conquered Greece, the Persian Empire, and Egypt. As a result, the Greek language and culture became dominant in that part of the world.
Epicurus’ parents were cleruchs. Cleruchs were Athenian citizens who were given a land grant to settle in another country that was controlled by Athens. They were generally a rather poor class and were looked down upon by better off Athenians. Additionally, they were seen as occupying foreigners by the people in the lands where they settled, and were generally hated. In 322 B.C., one year after Epicurus was drafted into the Athenian army, his family was forced to evacuate their home in Samos and move to the nearby coastal city of Colophon.
During the time Epicurus served in the Athenian army, Alexander the Great died. His death created a great deal of turmoil in Greece, both politically and intellectually. And while the political situation turned rather dark, there was a new openness to various forms of Greek philosophy. During that period, numerous philosophers opened schools and attempted to win converts.
As he was growing up, Epicurus had been exposed to the teachings of Plato. Then, while he was in Athens, he was exposed to those of Aristotle. When he left the military and returned to live with his family in Colophon, he got serious about studying philosophy and moved to the island of Rhodes to study under an Aristotelian teacher named Praxiphanes.
Seemingly, Epicurus did not appreciate Praxiphanes’ approach to philosophy, so he moved again in order to study with Nausiphanes of Teos, who taught the atomistic system of Democritus. After a time, he also had a falling out with Nausiphanes and left him, as well.
Then, in 311 B.C., Epicurus ventured out to teach his own unique variation of the Democritean philosophy. He moved to the island of Lesbos and began teaching his philosophy in the city of Mytilene, the capital of the island. The place where he taught was a publicly-funded gymnasium that was dominated by teachers who were partial to Plato and Aristotle, and who did not like Epicurus advocating his new philosophy. Because of that conflict, he ended up leaving in fear of his life and sailed to Lampsacus, a much more liberal city. It was there that he began to gain followers who became the core constituents of his new philosophy.
Meanwhile, in Athens, the continued political turmoil caused the people who followed the more established philosophies to be discredited. This created an opening for his new ideas. So, in 306 B.C., Epicurus sensed an opening to move to Athens, which he did. When he arrived, he bought a plot of land with a house and a garden to house his followers. The school he founded there came to be known as “the Garden” because it was in his garden that he did his teaching. During that time, Epicurus also wrote extensively and sent manuscripts and letters to a growing number of followers throughout the Greek world.
It was in Athens that Epicurus’ philosophy reached its mature form, and from there Epicureanism was systematically propagated throughout the Hellenistic world. It was also there, because of some clashes with the authorities, that he decided it was best to stay out of politics and avoid playing to popular prejudices. Instead of trying to win over whole cities and nations, as had previous philosophers, his approach was aimed at attracting individuals to an Epicurean subculture while observing the religious and legal forms of the larger society. This turned out to be an important consideration in an era when philosophers were routinely executed or exiled for impiety. In the process, he developed an attitude of tolerance toward non-Epicureans.
Another unique aspect of the Garden was its avoidance of corporate and communal forms of organization. Legally speaking, the Garden itself was an unincorporated association of teachers and manuscript copyists who worked in Epicurus’ household. They were supported primarily by teaching, manuscript fees, and voluntary donations. This cadre of teachers produced quite a lot of material, including at least 42 different works of Epicurus, and many works of other Epicurean philosophers. It was in this environment that Epicurus came to be known for his close friendships and his unusually liberal attitudes. Contrary to the popular convention of the day, he even allowed women and slaves into his inner circle. Over time, the school grew in both prominence and popularity, and remained so through much of the Roman era.
Epicurus died in 270 B.C. of a painful urinary blockage and an associated dysentery infection. However, his philosophy continued to flourish for about 500 years after his death. During that era, most philosophical schools ended up degenerating into cults and falling into disfavor. However, Epicureanism was able to continue on because it avoided the political partisanship and organizational problems that plagued most other philosophies of that day. As it spread throughout the Roman world, Epicurean teachers were able to establish themselves in such cultural centers as Antioch and Alexandria, and were thus able to gain followers throughout the Greek-speaking world.
After the official acceptance of Christianity by the Emperor Constantine in 313 A.D., Epicureanism increasingly fell out of favor with the general population, and the school began a long period of decline. By the end of the Roman Empire, Epicureanism had all but died out.
Authority
As a naturalistic belief system, Epicureanism does not believe that there is any personal transcendent being that is able to reveal anything to mankind. All of the knowledge human beings are able to accumulate about reality must be discerned based on human reasoning. Thus, human reason is the ultimate authority source for Epicureanism.
Evidence for the Authority
As a naturalistic belief system, there is no possibility for there to exist any authority source other than human reason. The great flaw in this source is that there are so many unanswered questions about the actual nature of reality. Human reason is simply unreliable as an authority. It is only able to take into consideration things that exist in the material universe, and can only deal with the particular elements of the universe that can be known by observation and experiment. As such, even if there were some transcendent reality, Naturalism would not be able to acknowledge its existence, much less comment on its properties and character.
Worldview Beliefs
God
In its most basic essence, Epicureanism is a naturalistic worldview. Within Epicureanism, however, there was a dispute concerning the nature of ultimate reality.
That internal dispute had to do with whether or not gods actually exist. One faction asserted that gods do not exist at all. The other faction believed that the gods did exist, but with a caveat.
The group that didn’t believe in the objective reality of gods framed their belief around the idea that the gods exist only in the human mind as an ideal. Those in this faction believed that Epicurus did not actually understand the gods to have existed in reality. Rather, he saw them as idealized forms of the best human life.
The other group believed that the gods actually did exist outside the mind as material beings. Those who held this position believed that they actually existed somewhere in reality as physical and immortal creatures made of atoms, just like all other material things. At the same time, they believed that the gods were completely separate from the world occupied by man, and had no interest in it. In this respect, this form was much like Deism, where the existence of God is acknowledged, but as a being that had no interaction with the natural universe. So, even for this faction, at the very least, Epicureanism was practical Atheism.
Man
In Epicureanism, man is understood to be a purely natural creature made up of atoms. Epicurus did believe that humans were capable of personal tranquility and self-determination, but didn’t really explore, on a philosophical level, how this might be possible. Additionally, as a purely natural animal, the human person ceases to exist at physical death.
Salvation
Epicureanism’s most basic belief is that pleasure is the chief good in life. Thus, Epicurus promoted living life in such a way as to gain the greatest amount of pleasure possible during one’s lifetime. It is important to understand, though, what he meant by pleasure. In Epicureanism, the primary emphasis was on pleasures of the mind rather than physical pleasure. Thus, when it came to physical pleasures, Epicurus advocated moderation so as to avoid the mental suffering that occurs when people overindulge in sensuality. Interestingly, this actually led to asceticism in one’s lifestyle.
Epicurus believed that his philosophy was able to free people from two major fears; the fear of death and of the supernatural. With this, people would be able to find happiness in a world that had no hope of an afterlife.
Epicurus believed that the ultimate people could achieve in this life (salvation) was a state of tranquillity. He taught that this could be achieved by knowing how the world worked and by limiting one’s desires. Based on that belief, pleasure could be obtained by knowledge, friendship, and by living a virtuous and temperate life. He believed people could achieve this kind of tranquility by abstaining from bodily desires.
Regarding the afterlife, Epicureanism rejects immortality. It believes in the soul, but suggests that the soul is mortal and material, just like the body.
Epicurus came up with the Tetrapharmakos (the four-part cure) as a way of expressing how this should be expressed in daily life. The four-part cure is expressed as:
1) The gods are not to be feared.
2) Death is not a thing that one must fear.
3) Good is easy to obtain.
4) Evil is easy to tolerate.
Other Beliefs and Practices
Physics
The nature of physics is the central concept in Epicurean philosophy. While there is a strong emphasis in the various Epicurean writings about ethics and its various expressions, everything is ultimately based on a purely naturalistic belief that begins with the assertion that all of reality consists only of matter and void. This atomic materialism asserts that all matter is made up of tiny unchanging bodies called atoms. These atoms were believed to make up everything in existence – including the gods and the human soul (thoughts and senses).
Epicurus believed that there is an infinite supply of atoms, and an infinite amount of void. At the same time, there are a finite number of types of atoms. He believed that each type of matter was made up of atoms specific to that type of matter.
According to Epicureanism, atoms are the smallest particles that make up the material universe and do not contain any void. That being the case, they are unable to be broken down into smaller parts. In order for matter to break down into smaller parts, void is necessary. Since atoms contain no void and are the bottom line basic element of matter, should they be broken down, the universe itself would be destroyed. It is as atoms collide and join together in the void, that matter takes shape to form the material we find in the universe.
Epicurus also believed that atoms could act in different ways. One particular action was a type of movement that was able to cause the creation of new things. This particular movement he called the swerve. His theory was that the swerve movement accounted for both the existence of the material universe, and for human free will. He believed that if it were not for the swerve, there would be a never-ending chain of cause and effect that resulted in the same outcome forever. New results required the swerve that moved the atoms in a new direction.
Cosmology
Regarding the cosmos, Epicurus believed that since there is an infinite supply of atoms, there are also an infinite number of worlds. Along with that, all of the worlds are separated from one another by void.
Ethics
While ethics are touted as a central element of Epicurean beliefs, they are ultimately an expression of its physics. Even thoughts and feelings are considered to be material expressions. That being the case, moral values have a naturalistic origin as human beings create them to suit their life situations. These values, then, are necessarily humanistic – they are based on what humans consider best for themselves. According to Epicureanism, even human thoughts and emotions are the result of the activity of atoms in the human body, making ethical beliefs nothing more than a mechanical process.
With that, Epicureanism must create its own value foundation, and it selected a form of hedonism as its ethical foundation of choice. In the most basic sense, Epicureans see pleasure as the ultimate purpose of life. As evidence of this, they say that nature compels us to avoid pain, and they point out that all animals try to avoid pain as much as possible. There is also a very specific understanding of what comprises the greatest pleasure; it is focused on the avoidance of pain rather than seeking out pleasure. As it relates to defining morality, it identifies good with the acquisition of pleasure, and sees mans supreme good and ultimate end as the absence of pain in the body and the soul.
An integral part of the Epicurean ethical system relates to the concept of hedonism. But while hedonism is a central concept, it is not hedonism in the way most people conceive it. Epicurean hedonism is not mere sensual pleasure, but is more specifically the absence of pain in the body, and trouble in the soul. Gaining a pleasant life, for Epicureans, involves sober reasoning and the setting aside of beliefs that cause turmoil in the soul. It divides pleasure into two categories: pleasures of the body and pleasures of the mind. Pleasures of the body involve sensations experienced by such things as eating delicious food, sexual pleasure, and being free from physical pain. Pleasures of the mind involve mental states such as feelings of joy, the lack of fear, pleasant memories, and the like. The pleasures of the mind are considered more critical because they have a more enduring value.
Fear
One of the chief goals of Epicurean philosophy was to eliminate fear – most specifically, fear of the gods and fear of death. Epicurus saw these two things to be the primary cause of discord in life, and were connected with one another.
The fear of the gods could be overcome by recognizing the true nature of reality – that all of reality was material, including the gods, and that every being in existence was subject to the forces of the natural universe. To Epicureans, the gods operated in a realm of their own based on their own atomic structure, and didn’t have anything to do directly with human beings.
Regarding death, Epicureanism viewed death as the final end – there is no afterlife. Human beings were understood to be purely material beings, and upon death existence ceased. Those who can come to grips with this truth will cease fearing death.
Friendship
Epicurus laid great emphasis on developing friendships as the basis of a satisfying life. Friendship was considered one part of providing for one’s security. It is, in some ways, considered a utilitarian matter in that it helps give order as well as pleasure to life. On the other hand, it is also considered desirable in itself. Epicurus recognized humanity’s need for human interaction.
Love and Marriage
While Epicurus strongly promoted the need for friendship, he advocated against the kind of love that produced deep passion for another individual. He saw this kind of love to be something that would create discord in an individual’s life, and believed that people should avoid marriage altogether. That said, he was not opposed to recreational sex, and saw nothing wrong with indulging in that practice.
Politics
Epicurus totally rejected involvement in politics. His rejection of politics had a twofold basis. First, as religion and politics were closely bound together, promoting a non-traditional religious point of view, which his philosophy certainly did, could create a political backlash against him and his followers. This actually happened with some philosophers in that era, so by rejecting political involvement, he was largely able to avoid that kind of backlash. On a philosophical level, though, he also believed that political involvement gave rise to desires that destroy virtue and peace of mind. He saw that the lust for power and fame were part and parcel of politics, and that they worked against a life of pleasure.
Justice
Since eliminating discord is a key tenet of Epicurean faith, Epicurus’ followers looked at justice as an important value. Not only did it help maintain stability in society, but the thought of being caught and punished for evil deeds would cause inner turmoil in individuals and prevent them from being happy. Thus, Epicureans intentionally sought to avoid acting unjustly in order to eliminate the possibility of that kind of discord in life.
For Epicurus, though, justice was more than simply the righting of wrongs. Rather, he saw the implementation of justice as a social contract. He believed that if the citizenry would simply agree to and follow society’s laws and punishments, everyone would be protected from harm, and be free to pursue happiness.
© 2019 Freddy Davis