This is the third installment of a three part survey of the major Christian denominational groups and movements in the United States. In part one, we examined and analyzed the history, beliefs and practices of the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Churches in America. In part two we looked at the various mainline Protestant denominations. In this final part, we will survey the various movements and denominations that we regard as either evangelical and/or fundamentalist.
We begin with definitions of those terms and how we place groups in those categories. The term “Evangelical” comes from the Greek word euaggelion (gospel or good news) and refers to the historical movement that seeks to convert people to the Christian faith (i.e.; evangelism). Generally, evangelicals teach that salvation is based on grace through faith in Jesus Christ as one’s personal Lord and Savior. Evangelical Christians can be found in nearly all Protestant churches, but some denominations and movements today are more focused on evangelism than are most mainline Protestant denominations.
The term “fundamentalist,” in the Christian context, refers to Christians who adhere dogmatically to a set of strict theological and ethical teachings called the Five Fundamentals. They were formulated in the late 19th and early 20th centuries in reaction to the Modernist (liberal theological) movement among mainline Protestant churches. The Five Fundamentals state the following:
1. The verbal inspiration and infallibility of Scripture.
2. The virgin birth of Jesus.
3. The belief that Christ’s death was the atonement for sin.
4. The bodily resurrection of Jesus.
5. The historical reality of the miracles of Jesus.
Most evangelicals agree with those principles. However, in the mid-20th century, a gradual division occurred between evangelicals, who were willing to fellowship with non-evangelicals, and strict “Fundamentalists,” who resisted any attempts to find common ground with those they regarded as unbiblical. These differences will become more clear as we examine the following movements.
Baptist
The largest non-Catholic denominational tradition in the USA consists of churches that identify as Baptist. Twenty five million or more Americans claim membership in a church using that name, or which is affiliated with one of the more than 20 different Baptist organizations. The largest, according to their own figures, are the Southern Baptist Convention (SBC – 15 million) and the National Baptist Convention USA (8 million).
Other large Baptist groups include the following (reported membership in parenthesis):
- National Baptist Convention of America, Inc. (3.5 million)
- National Missionary Baptist Convention of America (2.5 million)
- American Baptist Churches in the U.S.A. (1.3 million)
- Progressive National Baptist Convention, Inc. (1 million)
The Baptist movement traces its origins to the English Separatist Movement of the 17th century. Groups of Christians left the Church of England to establish what they regarded as more biblically based bodies, and to practice baptism by immersion. Another source that may have influenced Baptists was the Anabaptists of the same period. Two important leaders in the early Baptists were John Smyth, the English pastor of a church in the Netherlands, and his successor, Thomas Helwys.
Baptists historically affirm the authority of Scripture only, salvation by grace through faith, and believer’s (i.e.: people old enough to understand its meaning) baptism by immersion. Baptism is seen as an ordinance not required for salvation, but, nonetheless, an important indication of one’s obedience to Christ.
Also, Baptist polity focuses on the autonomy of the local church. That is to say, each individual congregation decides for itself what to believe, how it will structure itself, and how to select leaders. Most congregations are voluntarily associated with others in local associations, state conventions, and national conventions. Many “Independent” Baptist churches are not formally associated or affiliated with any outside organization (see Independent Fundamentalist churches below).
Analysis: Today it is fair to say that most Baptist churches and individuals regard themselves, at least to some extent, as evangelicals. There is some theological diversity, however, even within Baptist groups. Some Baptists identify with Calvinist Reform theology (see Presbyterian/Reform below), and others take a more Armenian position (See Methodist below). Most, though, probably fall somewhere between the two.
Most Baptist groups are conservative (e.g.: Southern Baptist Convention) or moderate (e.g.: American Baptist Churches USA) in theology and adherence to biblical authority. A minority of individuals in the various groups are more liberal in their theological orientation. In the 1980s, the Southern Baptist Convention experienced a controversy between moderates and conservatives over leadership of the convention and its agencies. The conservative group eventually prevailed, so a sizable minority of churches, while remaining officially affiliated with the SBC, coalesced to form a moderate quasi-convention called the Cooperative Baptist Fellowship.
Churches of Christ/Christian Church
One major theological controversy in the United States during the 19th century revolved around the question, “What is the true church?” One group of theologians, mostly from Baptist and Presbyterian backgrounds, took the position that true New Testament Christianity had been totally distorted by the Catholic Church in the centuries following the apostolic era. They also regarded most of the Protestant churches that were formed out of the 16th century Reformation as unbiblical in their theology, ecclesiology, and worship. Thus, they banded together to study the New Testament and created what they called the “Restoration Movement” of Christianity in America.
Key leaders in that early movement included Thomas Campbell, Alexander Campbell, Walter Scott, Barton W. Stone and David Lipscomb. Eventually the different strands of that “back to the New Testament” movement led to the establishment of congregations who simply called themselves “the churches of Christ” (not to be confused with the United Church of Christ). In the 1920s, a number of churches of Christ formed the liberal Christian Church (Disciples of Christ). Another related coalition of conservative restorationist churches simply go by the Christian Church. Those Christian Churches separated from the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) in the late 1960s.
The Churches of Christ (COC) today claim about 1.5 million members and adherents in America. The majority reside in the states of Texas, Tennessee, and Alabama. Most of them are known as “a cappella” or “non-instrumental” in that they do not use musical instruments in their worship services, but rely entirely on harmonious singing. Their reason for excluding musical instruments is that the New Testament does not mention them being used in the early churches.
No formal ecclesiastical or denominational structure exists in the COC. In fact, most COC people do not like their movement even being called a denomination. COC congregations are all totally autonomous but, nonetheless, are loosely associated by common doctrinal perspectives. Informal networks among churches have been formed throughout the years in order to publish literature, find ministers (COC leaders are not called pastors), and sponsor COC oriented colleges and universities. Traditional COC universities include David Lipscomb University, Abilene Christian University, and Pepperdine University.
Perhaps the most important COC doctrinal distinctive is their dogmatic assertion that salvation is procured by repentance of sins, faith in Christ, and water baptism by immersion for the remission of sins. COC advocates point to a number of passages in the New Testament, so they argue, which indicate baptism is an essential ingredient in the salvation process. Some of those passages include Mark 16:16; John 3:5; Acts 2:38; Romans 6:3,4; 1 Corinthians 12:13; Galatians 3:27; and 1 Peter 3:19-21.
Analysis: The COC’s exclusivist view on baptism inevitably has separated it from fellowship with other evangelical Christian groups. It has also led to much friction between the COC and other evangelicals. They accuse the COC of proselytizing already saved Christians by causing them to doubt their salvation if they are not baptized in their movement. The above scripture passages used by the COC to maintain that baptism is essential for salvation have been carefully translated and exegeted by many competent Greek scholars. Their conclusion: those passages do not prove the COC’s point, and the New Testament does not mandate baptism as necessary for salvation. The restorationists affiliated with the Christian Church, while stressing the need for baptism, maintains closer relationships with other evangelical groups.
Pentecostal
The modern Pentecostal movement is generally regarded to have begun in 1901 in a chapel prayer meeting in Topeka, KS, led by Charles Parham, a teacher at Bethel Bible College. A few years later, in 1906, the Pentecostal experience of “speaking in tongues” burst on the scene during a revival at a small African American Church, the Apostolic Faith Mission, at 312 Azusa Street in Los Angeles, California. The church’s pastor, William J. Seymour, had been influenced by Parham.
Following these beginnings, Pentecostal preachers and churches spread rapidly, coalescing into various denominations and factions. Some of those groups include the following:
- The Assemblies of God (3,041,957 in about 12,595 churches – up from about 2 million in 1984) (65 million worldwide)
- The Church of God in Christ (5,499,875 in 6,000 churches)
- The Church of God (Cleveland, TN) (1,098,527)
- The International Pentecostal Holiness Church (about 310,000 in 2,000 churches)
- International Church of the Foursquare Gospel (255,136 in 1593 churches)
- The Open Bible Churches
- The Vineyard Churches
Most Pentecostal churches and denominations adhere to the basic essential doctrines of the historic Christian faith. Most are strongly evangelical, teaching that salvation is by grace through faith in Christ. (Some Pentecostal groups, called “Oneness Pentecostals,” deny the Trinity. See: http://www.marketfaith.org/the-hidden-cult-of-oneness-pentecostalism/.)
Pentecostals have several distinctive beliefs that differ from most other evangelical movements. One is the doctrine of the “baptism of the Holy Spirit” as a second experience of grace after conversion. Another is the belief that speaking in tongues is an evidence of baptism of the Holy Spirit, and is a normal part of a Christian’s life and worship. Most Pentecostals also affirm that healing and miracles can and do occur when gifted people pray for them. The Assemblies of God, for instance, lists those doctrines on it website (www.ag.org).
- WE BELIEVE … the Baptism in the Holy Spirit is a special experience following salvation that empowers believers for witnessing and effective service, just as it did in New Testament times.
- WE BELIEVE … The initial physical evidence of the baptism in the holy spirit is ‘Speaking in Tongues,’ as experienced on the Day of Pentecost and referenced throughout Acts and the Epistles.
- WE BELIEVE … Divine healing of the sick is a privilege for Christians today and is provided for in Christ’s atonement (His sacrificial death on the cross for our sins).
Analysis: Most Pentecostals are a vital part of the larger fellowship of born-again and evangelical Christians. They are zealous to reach lost people with the Gospel of Christ for salvation, and to support world missions. Their distinctive doctrines of the Baptism of the Holy Spirit and speaking in tongues have at times been the source of controversy in some non-historically Pentecostal churches. Most evangelical groups maintain that Baptism of the Holy Spirit is synonymous with conversion and that speaking in tongues is not a necessary evidence for spiritual living (though it may be a special gift of the Spirit for some believers). In any case, disagreement on those points should not be cause for breaking fellowship among Christians who respect other believer’s views.
Unfortunately, many Pentecostal churches have embraced the doctrines of the Word-Faith Movement. That movement, also known as the Health and Wealth Gospel, or “Name and Claim It” theology, teaches that if one has enough faith (usually demonstrated by a significant gift to a Word-Faith ministry), she is guaranteed to be blessed with riches and good health. The implication, however, is that if one does not receive material blessings, or suffers illness, it is her own fault because she obviously does not have enough faith.
Independent Fundamentalist Churches (IF)
One of the largest and least understood segments of Christianity in America consists of those churches and institutions that claim to have no denominational affiliation, and are totally independent from any ecclesiastical authority beyond itself. Statistics for how many people are actually members of such churches are difficult to come by and document. However, it is estimated that as many as 12 million Americans attend non-denominational congregations of one kind or another, making them the third largest number of estimated adherents in America behind Roman Catholics and Southern Baptists.
The focus of this article concerns those churches that are part of the historical movement known as Fundamentalism. These consist of mostly traditionally Baptist or Bible churches (though many use other distinctive nomenclatures or none at all). Many Christians do not understand the differences in local congregations using common denominational names. For instance, some people are surprised by the extremely narrow views of some Baptist churches they think are Southern Baptist (or other Baptist associations or conventions) but are actually nonaligned.
The IF church movement can probably be traced back to the early 20th century when a major controversy erupted in many mainline denominations. The issue regarded what was called modernism – the acceptance of liberal theological positions and the perceived compromising of Christian ethical standards. For example, many Baptists, particularly in the northern states, withdrew from the American Baptist denomination and formed Fundamentalist Baptist churches and coalitions. In fact, some of the largest Baptist churches in the northern USA are Independent Baptists.
In this article we will use the generic name “Independent Fundamentalist” (IF). Though most such IF churches are solidly orthodox in their theology concerning the Trinity, the deity of Christ, and the Holy Spirit, they do have a few particular characteristics. For instance, most IF church are dogmatic in their use only of the King James Version of the Bible for study, preaching, and teaching. They regard nearly all other modern translations as distorted and based on faulty textual evidence.
Many IF churches also practice what is called “separationism.” That is the belief that genuine Bible believing (KJV) churches and individuals should avoid fellowship with other churches that do not agree with their doctrines. Some groups take it even farther by asserting what is sometimes called “double separationism.” That belief says that no IF church or individual should even fellowship with other IF churches or persons if they tolerate or fellowship with non-IF Christians.
Analysis: The commitment of Independent-Fundamentalist churches to the authority of the Bible and to evangelism is to be commended. Indeed, IF churches and colleges have produced a great number of evangelists and missionaries. Some of the more prominent IF colleges include Bob Jones University, Tennessee Temple University (merged with Piedmont International University in 2015), and Liberty University (now more closely aligned with the Southern Baptist Convention).
That being said, those IF churches and associations that still maintain that the King James Version is the only valid English Bible cannot adequately support their position. The newer versions are generally based on much better and older textual evidence than what was available to the translators of the KJV in 1611. (see: http://www.marketfaith.org/2016/06/what-do-you-know-about-the-bible-take-this-quiz/ )
Also, the practice of separationism violates Jesus’ own words that Christians should love one another. Separating oneself from other Bible believing Christians just because they disagree on nonessential issues is based on faulty interpretations of such passages as 2 Corinthians 6:17, “Wherefore come out from among them, and be ye separate, saith the Lord, and touch not the unclean thing; and I will receive you” (KJV). In the context of that passage, Paul was quoting Isaiah 52:11 where God warned the people of Israel to avoid being influenced by pagans and idol worshipers. He was worried that the Corinthians were allowing pagan influences to creep back into their midst. To suggest Paul wanted Christians to not fellowship with other Christians, even those with whom they disagree, is to miss the whole point of his letters to the Corinthians (see 1 Cor. 13).
Seventh-day Adventist
One of the fastest growing religious movements in the world over the past half century is the Seventh-day Adventist Church (SDA). That group has more than 16 million members in 90,000 churches, in more than 200 countries. The SDA North American Division (USA and Canada) has about 1.1 million members in 5,500 churches.
To fully understand SDA beliefs, we need to take a brief look at its beginnings and history. SDAs teach that the church’s founder, Ellen G. White (1827-1915), possessed a modern “spirit of prophecy.” The church maintains that as a young girl she had a series of divinely inspired visions. They say that her writings, which formed the basis of the SDA, are therefore inspired interpretations of Scripture. Even today SDAs regard her writings as authoritative for understanding the Bible and last days eschatology.
Actually, the SDA movement was derived from several previous movements from which Mrs. White borrowed her ideas. One of those was the Millerite Second Advent Movement. A Baptist minister named William Miller (1782-1849) had incorrectly predicted the coming of Christ in 1844. When that prediction failed, some of Miller’s followers claimed he had gotten the date right but the event wrong. Instead of being time for the second coming, it was the beginning of Jesus’ heavenly “Investigative Judgment” (see below).
Another SDA precursor was Seventh-day Sabbatarianism, as taught by a sea captain named Joseph Bates (1792-1872). He claimed he had rediscovered the lost key to understanding Scripture, which was the seventh-day Sabbath.
Mrs. White’s visions combined those unusual theological notions, and others, into a unique religious system. She established the SDA movement in the 1850s. The SDA Church was formally organized in 1863 in Battle Creek, Michigan.
SDA beliefs are in basic agreement with historic, biblical Christianity regarding the Trinity, the deity, death, and resurrection of Christ, and the Holy Spirit. However, the SDA has a number of distinctive doctrines not in accord with the mainstream of the historic Christian faith.
The SDA teaches that Christianity, in its original form, was corrupted in the centuries after the New Testament era by apostate Roman Catholic popes. The sign of that apostasy was the shifting of the Sabbath day from the seventh to the first day of the week. Throughout history, they say, a small, faithful group of Christians has maintained true worship. Today the only “remnant” church is the SDA.
The SDA teaches that the biblical Sabbath must be observed on the seventh day of the week (Friday evening until Saturday evening) in accordance with Old Testament law. It maintains that the New Testament church observed the Sabbath, which they regard as the “seal” of God’s law. They argue that those Christians who worship on Sunday are in grave error and, in the last days, will bear the “mark of the beast.” That is, says the SDA, there will be a worldwide law mandating Sunday worship. Those who disobey will be severely persecuted.
The SDA has other doctrines unique to that movement. We mentioned the doctrine of the “Investigative Judgment” of Christ. Mrs. White maintained that the true “holy of holies” sanctuary of God is in heaven where, in 1844, Jesus began the second phase of His atoning ministry called the “Investigative Judgment.” Christ began examining the lives of the dead who are now in an unconscious state of soul sleep. He is investigating to see if they are worthy of being part of the first resurrection, and to determine who among the living are abiding in Christ and keeping God’s commandments (especially the Sabbath).
Analysis: We applaud the SDA for its commitment to evangelism and world missions. Its astounding growth around the world is evidence of that fervor. Certainly, many millions of souls have been won to faith in Christ through the SDA.
That being said, however, the SDA’s assertion that, since its inception in the mid 19th century, it is the “remnant church,” cannot be substantiated either biblically or historically. The universal church consists of the body of believers in Christ in all times and all places. It is the body of Christ in which the gospel is proclaimed, Christians are nurtured in their faith, and gifts of the Spirit are exercised. No single organization can claim exclusive title as the true or remnant church. The true church includes all the redeemed of all ages (see Matt. 16:15-19; Rom. 12:4-5; 1 Cor. 12-14; Eph. 1:22-23, 3:21, 4:4-13).
We concede that in the early days of the Christian movement, many Jewish believers kept the Jewish Sabbath. However, the Bible indicates that early in the New Testament era, many believers (primarily Gentiles) met regularly on the “Lord’s Day” (first day of the week) as a memorial of Christ’s resurrection. While there is certainly no prohibition in Scripture against it, the SDA’s insistence that Sabbath-keeping is mandatory for Christians is unwarranted. Likewise, Mrs. White’s claim that Sunday worship is (or will be) the mark of the beast is completely unfounded. It is based on Ellen G. White’s faulty interpretations of Revelation chapters 13 and 14.
Furthermore, the SDA assertion that Christ entered the sanctuary in 1844 to do the “Investigative Judgment” is based on a reinterpretation of the failed Millerite prediction for Jesus’ return in that year. It has no basis in the Bible. The new Testament clearly teaches that Christ accomplished the totality of His redemptive work on the cross and in His resurrection. Salvation is assured by God’s grace through faith in Christ. There is no need for a second phase. (see John 5:24; Rom. 5:6-10, 8:1; Col. 1:20-22; Heb. 1:3, 9:27; 1 John 5:11-13).
Conclusion
This concludes our survey of Christian denominations. We hope this has helped some readers better understand both the commonalities and the significant differences among Christian groups. We hope it also will help Christians to see that in most essential elements, Christians have more in common than what separates. As the old saying, attributed to Lutheran theologian Rupertus Meldenius (1582-1651), goes:
“In Essentials Unity,
In Non-Essentials Liberty,
In All Things Charity.”
© 2016 Tal Davis